enantiornithes – Nix Illustration

Spectember 2025 #04: Kerguelen Kingdom

A couple of anonymous submissions asked for “Kerguelen fauna before it sank 20 million years ago” and “a predator which prowled Cenozoic Kerguelen before it sank”:

[Context: The Kerguelen Plateau is today almost entirely underwater, but during the Cretaceous Period much larger parts were above water as island landmasses. Initially forming during the Gondwanan breakup of what would become Australia, India, and Antarctica, it was eventually left isolated in the forming southern Indian Ocean, and due to long-term volcanic hotspot activity it may have gone through as many as three different periods of rising and sinking before finally almost completely submerging about 20 million years ago.]

In the early Cenozoic, around the time of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, there’s less of Kerguelen’s land above water than there was in the Cretaceous, but the climate is warm-temperate and conifer forests cover the plateau’s islands.

A digital sketch of a speculative descendant of enantiornitheans. It's a large chunky shaggy-feathered flightless bird with a small head, toothed jaws instead of a beak, a long neck, vestigial wings with small claws, thick legs, and a pair of ribbon-like tail feathers that end in wider spaded plumes.

Enantiochen reliquia is a flightless bird standing around 1.5m tall (~5′), and its toothy jaws, wing claws, and ornamental ribbon-like tail plumes on males identify this species as an enantiornithean, descended from a small flighted form that just barely survived through the K-Pg extinction here.

It’s the largest current inhabitant of the Kerguelen plateau, a browsing herbivore filling a similar ecological role to the later moa of Aotearoa.

A digital sketch of a speculative descendant of gondwanatherian mammals. It vaguely resembles a rabbit with small pointed ears, with a deep snout, long digging claws on its digits, a short thin tail, and long hind feet.

Cuniculitherium kerguelensis is another Mesozoic holdover, a gondwanatherian mammal — although a little less unique than Enantiochen since other gondwanatheres still also survive in early Cenozoic South America and Antarctica.

About 40cm long (~1’4″), it’s a rather rabbit-like burrowing herbivore with long hind feet and a fast bounding gait, traits its lineage originally evolved to evade unenlagiine theropods and small terrestrial crocodylomorphs prior to the end-Cretaceous extinction. Those predators are gone from Kerguelen now, but…

A digital sketch of a speculative descendant of australobatrachian frogs. It has a large head, short chunky limbs, and an elongated body with a row of bony amor plates along its spine.

Daptobatrachus archaeotropus is a descendant of australobatrachian frogs. In a case of island gigantism it’s close to the size of a cat, around 50cm long (~1’8″), and with its elongated body, stubby hind legs, and a row of osteoderms down its back, it almost looks like a throwback to the Permian.

Although unable to hop, it’s an ambush predator capable of raising itself up for very brief bursts of crocodile-like galloping, preying on pretty much anything it can potentially fit into its mouth.

Avisaurus

Avisaurus darwini here lived at the very end of the Cretaceous, about 66 million years ago, in what is now the Hell Creek fossil beds in Montana, USA.

It was a member of a diverse group of Mesozoic birds known as enantiornitheans, which retained claws on their wings and often still had toothed snouts instead of beaks – and being part of the avisaurid family it was also one of the larger known examples of these birds, similar in size to a modern hawk at around 60cm long (~2′).

Although this species is only known from isolated foot bones, the remains have distinct enough anatomical features to show that Avisaurus had powerful gripping talons similar to those of modern hawks and owls, suggesting it had a similar lifestyle hunting small vertebrate prey in the ancient swampy Hell Creek ecosystem.

Falcatakely

Modern birds’ upper beaks are made up mostly from skull bones called the premaxilla, but the snouts of their earlier non-avian dinosaur ancestors were instead formed by large maxilla bones.

And Falcatakely forsterae here had a very unusual combination of these features.

Living in Madagascar during the Late Cretaceous, about 70-66 million years ago, it was around 40cm long (1’4″) and was part of a diverse lineage of Mesozoic birds known as enantiornitheans. These birds had claws on their wings and usually had toothy snouts instead of beaks, and many species also had ribbon-like display feathers on their tails instead of lift-generating fans.

Falcatakely had a long tall snout very similar in shape to a modern toucan, unlike any other known Mesozoic bird, with the surface texture of the bones indicating it was also covered by a keratinous beak. But despite this very “modern” face shape the bone arrangement was still much more similar to other enantiornitheans – there was a huge toothless maxilla making up the majority of the beak, with a small tooth-bearing premaxilla at the tip.

This suggests that there was more than one potential way for early birds to evolve modern-style beaks, and there may have been much more diversity in these animals’ facial structures than previously thought.

Elsornis

The enantiornitheans (“opposite-birds”) were the most diverse and widespread group of Mesozoic birds, existing all around the world throughout the Cretaceous period. They retained claws on their wings and had toothy snouts instead of beaks, and while most of them lacked the lift-generating tail fans of modern birds they appear to have still been very adept fliers.

But Elsornis keni here was doing something different.

Known from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia, about 80 million years ago, this opposite-bird lived alongside famous dinosaurs like Velociraptor and Protoceratops in what is now the Gobi Desert. Only a single partial specimen has ever been found, so its full life appearance is unknown and this reconstruction is somewhat speculative, but it would have been around the size of a pigeon at 25cm long (10″) – not including any decorative tail feathers it may have had, similar to other enantiornitheans.

It wing and shoulder bones were very odd for an opposite-bird, with proportions that don’t match anything capable of competent flight. Instead Elsornis appears to have been a flightless enantiornithean, a representative of a previously unknown terrestrial lineage.

Enantiophoenix

Enantiophoenix electrophyla, an enantiornithean bird from the Late Cretaceous of Lebanon (~95 mya).

It was similar in size to a modern starling, around 20cm (8″) long, and although only known from a fragmentary fossil it had fairly chunky leg bones with large claws. It was probably a strong percher like most other avisaurid enantiornitheans.

Several tiny pieces of amber were also found within the fossil, which have been suggested to be stomach contents. This could perhaps be evidence of Enantiophoenix feeding on tree sap like modern sapsuckers, but without a known skull it’s hard to tell for certain whether it was specialized for that sort of diet or not.

Longipteryx

Longipteryx chaoyangensis, an enantiornithine from the Early Cretaceous of China, about 120 million years ago. With a body length of only around 15cm (6″), it had a long snout tipped with a few hooked teeth and feet capable of perching – features that indicate it may have lived very similarly to modern kingfishers, feeding on fish and small invertebrates in its swampy forest habitat.

The enantiornithines were a sort of “cousin” lineage to modern birds. Most had toothy jaws and clawed wings, and the wide variety in their skull shapes suggests that they were specialized for many different dietary niches. The entire group went extinct during the K-Pg mass extinction and left no living descendants, but during the Cretaceous they were the most widespread and diverse group of birds*, with fossils currently known from every continent except Antarctica.

* Depending on how you define “bird”.